Development of National Character and importance in present day political situation.

“Development of National Character and importance in present day political situation.”

National character is an expression which describes forms of collective self-perception, sensibility, and conduct which are shared by the individuals who inhabit a modern nation-state. It presupposes the existence of psychological and cultural homogeneity among the citizens of each country, as well as the idea that each nation can be considered a collective individual, with characteristics analogous to the empirical individuals who are its inhabitants. This behavior is sometimes considered on an abstract level, that is, as cultural behavior without actual reference to necessarily different personality modalities. It may also be considered as motivated by underlying psychological mechanisms characteristic of a given people.

National character as institutional pattern: In this approach, most common among political scientists, the national character is epitomized by the dominant, or typical and representative, institutions, particularly those concerned with politics and economics. The basic objectives of national-character studies are to examine the tensions underlying the political and social structures of modern states. Social tensions are particularly apparent in societies that are rapidly changing. For example, one type of social tension that is frequently observed results from the systematic attempts of an elite to establish particular patterns of directed social change, in spite of the unavailability of sufficient individuals whose training and social experience equip them for achieving the goals set by the elite. In one such study, Bauer attempted to demonstrate the social tension existing between the political elite in Russian society and a large number of individuals who are not motivationally involved in the same ways as the members of the Communist party hierarchy (1948).

If necessary personality traits are not forthcoming from a proportionate number of individuals within the society, the society will not function well in terms of newer values, whatever the elite controlling the society attempts to do. Even though institutional legal structures are consciously changed in accord with social planning, if characteristic changes in socialization experiences do not accompany these changes in such a manner as to facilitate the appearance of adequate motivational behavior, the sought-after change will not become stabilized and self-perpetuating.

In another study indirectly concerned with the psychological processes underlying dynamics of social change. Hagen (1962), in a comprehensive study of economic and social change in a number of discrete societies, cogently discussed the relationship of personality variables to different economic traditions, such as colonialism or feudalism, and the manner in which they either facilitate or hamper economic development. This study is illustrative of the fact that considerations of national character are having considerable influence in augmenting theoretical approaches in economics and political science.

Education procedure in transfer of learning

Education procedure in transfer of learning

The levels of transfer are often referred to as positive and negative. In addition, there are both subtle and marked differences in types of transfer. Many of the differences lead to distinctions in how transfer is classified depending on the level of complexity of the transfer.

Positive transfer: When learning in one context improves learning or performance in another context this is called positive transfer.

Negative transfer occurs when previous learning or experience inhibits or interferes with learning or performance in a new context.

Simple versus complex transfer: Simple transfer happens when little or no effort is required to apply what has been learnedin one situation to a new situation.

Near and far transfer: Another distinction used is between near and far transfer. Usually these terms distinguish the closeness or distance between the original learning and the transfer task. Near transfer has also been seen as the transfer of learning within the school context, or between a school task and a very similar task. Far transfer is used to refer to the transfer of learning from the school context to a non-school context.

Automatic and mindful transfer: When an individual responds spontaneously within a transfer situation, which is very similar to the learning situation then this is automatic transfer. Perkins and Salomon (1996b) use the terms low and high road transfer to differentiate the mechanisms of automatic and mindful transfer. Gradually, with time and practice, the automatic transfer effect will extend or ‘reach out’ over the low road. Mindful, high road transfer is deliberate and involves conscious thought and intellectual effort, and occurs in situations where there are significant gaps or differences between the original and the transfer situations. In an education or training course participants learn about a process in a controlled environment. The problems encountered in the educational setting tend to be well defined. In the workplace it may not always be obvious when, or even desirable to use the procedure.

Scope of programmed learning

“Scope of programmed learning in curriculum of certain courses for students”

Programmed learning, educational technique characterized by self-paced, self-administered instruction presented in logical sequence and with much repetition of concepts. Programmed learning received its major impetus from the work done in the mid-1950s by the American behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner and is based on the theory that learning in many areas is best accomplished by small, incremental steps with immediate reinforcement, or reward, for the learner. This technique can be applied through texts, so-called teaching machines, and computer-assisted-instruction. No matter what the medium, two basic types of programming are used: linear, or straight-line programming, and branching programming.

Linear programming immediately reinforces student responses that approach the learning goal. Responses that do not lead toward the goal go unreinforced. Each bit of learning is presented in a “frame,” and a student who has made a correct response proceeds to the next frame. All students work through the same sequence, and a low rate of error is necessary to ensure continued positive reinforcement of correct responses.

Branching, or intrinsic, programming was initially developed in conjunction with the use of an electronic training device for military personnel. This technique provides the student a piece of information, presents a situation requiring a multiple choice or recognition response, and on the basis of that choice instructs the student to proceed to another frame, where he or she learns if the choice was correct, and if not, why not. A student who responded incorrectly will either be returned to the original frame, or routed through a subprogram designed to remedy the deficiency indicated by the wrong choice. A student who selects correctly advances to the next frame in the program. This process is repeated at each step throughout the program, and a student may be exposed to differing amounts of material depending upon errors made.

Text materials often rely on a cardboard mask that the student uses to cover the correct response until a choice is made. There are successful programmed-learning texts for primary-grade pupils, but most such texts have been designed for upper-grade and college-level subjects such as statistics, economics, and foreign languages.

Himalayan Forest Thrush

Himalayan Forest Thrush

A new species of birds has been discovered in the snow-capped mountains of the Himalayas. The new bird has been named as the Himalayan Forest Thrush. It is mostly found in the northeastern India and parts of Tibet, Nepal and China. The scientific name of the bird is Zoothera salimalii. The name 'salimalii' is commemorative of the great Indian ornithologist Salim Ali. The Himalayan Forest Thrush is a variant of the Plain Backed Thrush and the European Alpine Thrush. Professor Per Johan Alstrom, a former member of the Uppsala University in Sweden, first noticed the distinctive call of the Himalayan Forest Thrush back in 1999, during a trip to Arunachal Pradesh.

Alstrom, along with his Indian colleague Shashank Dalvi, noticed the two distinctive variants of the Plain Backed Thrush that occurred at different elevations of the mountains. One set of the bird sang a harsh tune sitting above tree line of the forest, while the other set of the bird churned out a tuneful call sitting below the tree line. Unable to find any physical distinction between the two sets of birds, Alstrom spent several years defining the difference. The alpine thrush has longer legs and a longer tail, proportionately, than the forest bird, which are adaptations to its habitat. Because longer legs are more useful in open habitats than in forest. He collected samples of birds of India and China from the 15 museums around the world and studied them for several years. The study of birds also included DNA tests that confirmed the difference between the two species. The two species evolved differently to adapt with the different conditions of the peaks and the mountain forests. During their trips to India and China, Alstrom has also found a Chinese sub-species of the Himalayan Forest Thrush and named it as the Sichuan Forest Thrush.

Recommendations of Justice RV Easwar committee.

The main recommendations of Justice RV Easwar committee.

Union Government has constituted a committee to simplify the provisions of the Income Tax Act (IT), 1961 under set up the 10-member committee under the Chairmanship of former Delhi High Court Judge, Justice R.V. Easwar to remove ambiguities in the tax laws that cause unnecessary litigation and update the laws based on various judgments. The recommendations will go a long way in reducing litigation, but it remains to be seen if the government will accept these recommendations and make changes in the budget.

Terms of reference of the Committee:

To study and identify: provisions in the IT Act, 1961, which are leading to litigation due to the different interpretations. The areas and provisions of the Act which needs simplification in the light of the existing jurisprudence. Provisions which are impacting the ease of doing business.

Suggest: modifications and alternatives to the existing provisions and identified areas in order to bring predictability and certainty in tax laws without substantial impact on the revenue collection and tax base.

Recommendations: The Committee will set up its own procedures for regulating its work and will put its draft recommendations in the public domain in batches after consulting stakeholders. The First Batch shall be submitted by 31st January, 2016 and shall contain as many recommendations as possible.

A committee set up to change direct tax laws has suggested several taxpayer-friendly measures to improve the ease of doing business, reduce litigation and accelerate the resolution of tax disputes. The committee has asked the income-tax department to desist from the practice of adjusting tax demand of a taxpayer whose tax return is under assessment against legitimate refunds due. The panel also proposed that stock trading gains of up to Rs.5 lakh will be treated as capital gains and not business income, a move that could encourage more retail investments in the stock market. The committee has recommended that TDS rates for individuals be reduced to 5% from 10%. It has also clarified that dividend income on which dividend distribution tax has been levied should be treated as part of total income. It also sought to provide an exemption to non-residents not having a Permanent Account Number (PAN), but who furnish their Tax Identification Number (TIN), from the applicability of TDS at a higher rate.

Taxpayers are already grappling with regulatory changes of the Companies Act, 2013, Ind-AS (Indian accounting standards) and the proposed GST (goods and services tax). Industry should be allowed more time to deal with another change of this nature. The committee understands that the taxpayers feel that many of the provisions of the ICDS are capable of generating a legal debate about which at present there is no clarity. The committee also recommended that most of the processes of the income-tax department should be conducted electronically to minimize human interface. To this effect, it suggested that processes such as filing of tax returns, rectification of mistakes, appeal, refunds and any communication regarding scrutiny including notices, questions and documents sought should be done electronically. To make it easy for small businesses, the committee recommended that the eligibility criteria under the presumptive scheme be increased to Rs.2 crore from Rs.1 crore. It also recommended launching a similar scheme for professionals. The presumptive tax is levied on an estimated income and makes life (and work) easier for small businesses.

Under the presumptive income scheme, such professionals or businesses will not need to maintain a book of accounts but just pay tax based on presumptive income calculations. For instance, for professionals it is proposed that 33.3% of their previous year’s receipts will be taken as income on which they will have to pay tax. If their profits are much lower, they will have to maintain a book of accounts clearly categorizing expenditure and pay tax accordingly.