Causes of Forgetting. Necessary aspect of learning process

Causes of Forgetting. Necessary aspect of learning process.

Forgetting can be defined as partial or complete loss of information of the previously learned material. It is the loss of information already stored and encoded in long term memory. By suggestion of Herman Ebbinghaus  gave classical curve of forgetting. This curve suggest that maximum forgetting is immediately after learning and it slows down with passage of time forgetting and retention are two sides of the coin.

Factors effecting forgetting:

• Amount of material: Longer list is difficult to learn but once learned is retained better than shorter list.
• Pattern of material: Material which is highlighted or made distinct from the rest is remembered well.
• Method of learning: (a) Part vs. whole. (b) Distributed vs. Massed. Whole learning is useful when material is of moderate length, subjects are intelligent and material is abstract. Part learning is useful when material to be learnt is very long some pats are of special difficulty an material can easily be split into subunits. In general Distributed practice is superior to massed practice because it prevents fatigue from hampering performance, reduces interference and prevents boredom from selling in.
• Personality factors: Age, Motivation, Sex, Intelligence
• Over learning: Learning that is carried out after one or two perfect recalls of the material to be remembered. Is called as Over learning. Over learning is best way to prevent forgetting.
• Feed back: Knowledge of how  well one is doing helps to improve performance on retention test.
• Nature of material: Logically organized and meaningful material is better remembered than N.S.S

 Quantitative methods of measuring memory

• Recall: The subject is asked to reproduce previously learned material within an specified time period. The technique of recall places greatest emphasis on the simple availability of the material. Recall tests may be given immediately after complete presentation of the list or less often sometime when it suits experimenter purpose. Those are two types of recall(A) Free Reoall, (B) Serial Recall 
• Recognition: It is an experiment method used in measurement of memory and in this method subject is required to respond to a series of test stimuli by stating whether or not these were among the stimuli presented in a learning session held earlier.
• Reconstruction: It is an quantitative method of memory measurement. This method involves rearranging of the parts of the task as they originally were.
• Saving method or Relearning: In which is a quantative method memory is measured by comparing the amount of time taken or so of trails required to relearn the same matter with the time and trails it took an original learning.
• Anticipating or Prompting method: In which subjects are exposed to the list in something like the familiar flash card technique.
• Qualitative method: Barlett had subjects read a folk tale silently and then 15 minutes later asked the subjects to write the tale as they remembered. Later subject were again asked to write out the story and several additional writing were required over period of time. 

Taxation that help in building up good investment climate.

The features of taxation that help in building up good investment climate.

Investors identify the tax system as one of the most important parameters in making an investment decision. Cumbersome tax structures are a drain on investor time and resources and act as a disincentive to participation in the formal economy. A badly designed or executed tax system negatively impacts investment and economic growth suffers. Traditional technical assistance has focused on the implementation of revenue-generating mechanisms, while largely neglecting the impact of the tax system on investment and economic growth.

World Bank Group teams advise governments in creating and administering effective, fair, and inclusive tax systems that foster investment, economic growth, and political stability in developing countries. The state of a country’s business and investment climate is a key factor in that country’s ability to attract foreign investment and develop small and medium enterprises. Transnational enterprises prefer to invest in enterprises in countries with a healthy business climate – where cost, delay, and risk are minimized. In addition, SMEs are more likely to flourish in a climate where they are not overburdened by taxes and regulations.

Across the globe and within the OSCE, it is the wealthier countries that tend to have more favourable business and investment climates Many of the Eastern European countries without major energy or raw material reserves have transformed their economies into some of the most attractive global FDI destinations through reform of their business and investment climate. Governments often downplay the importance of the business climate when inviting foreign direct investment. They tend to focus on market size, availability of natural resources and costs. While all these factors are important, the investment climate is a critical factor and should not be underestimated.

Generate advancements in the following areas:

• Investment and competition: Enhancing country competitiveness and investment potential by fostering a transparent and predictable tax system that is equally applied to all.
• Transfer pricing in developing countries: Implementing transfer pricing frameworks (legal, regulatory, and supervisory) for audit of multinationals and related parties; employing assessment tools to identify tax evasion risks; introducing simplified approaches to ease compliance burdens and develop safe harbors; and building sector-specific capacity in tax administrations.
• Investment incentives: Developing diagnostic tools to determine the cost-benefit of financial and non-financial incentives and analyzing discretionary and distorting incentive regimes to better advise on potential reforms.
• Value-added tax reform: Streamlining VAT administration systems through legislative reform and implementation regarding refund and reclaim and customs reform interface.
• Direct links with investment: Helping governments improve accounting standards to meet internationally accepted norms and ultimately eliminate reporting barriers for investors.
• Inclusion: Widening participation in the tax system at all levels, with particular focus on micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises.
• Micro, small, and medium enterprises: Designing and implementing special regimes for micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises to (i) match their capacity, and (ii) reduce barriers to joining the formal tax system by widening the formal tax base to promote inclusion.
• Domestic resource mobilization: Enhancing the ability to raise revenues in the long run through more effective tax administration and tax base expansion.
• Compliance management: Targeting transparency through legal and regulatory simplification of reporting systems and business processes where appropriate; implementing risk-based assessments for audit selection, taxpayer outreach, education, dispute resolution, and appeals.
• Value-added tax: Implementing more effective processes, including better refund and reclaim systems, to generate a higher VAT yield.
• Governance: Promoting good governance through transparent systems, procedures, and effective audit.
• Process transparency: Assisting countries in accessing information and audit selection; storing and exchanging quality taxpayer information to facilitate monitoring of the flow of funds.
• Incentives reform: Eliminating mechanisms that encourage discretion, distortions, or predictability.
• Global standards and norms: Assisting countries in adopting internationally-accepted norms and standards, especially with regards to tax transparency.
• Tax transparency: Supporting countries that aim to meet international tax transparency standards set by the Global Forum for Tax Transparency and Exchange of Information, adopted by the World Bank Group, and focusing on strengthening availability of information (ownership, accounting requirements), access powers and safeguards, and exchange of information internally and internationally.

Li-Fi and it significant.

Li-Fi and it significant.

Li-Fi (Light Fidelity) is a bidirectional, high speed and fully networked wireless communication technology similar to Wi-Fi. The term was coined by Harald Haas [1] and is a form of visible light communication and a subset of optical wireless communications (OWC) and could be a complement to RF communication, or even a replacement in contexts of data broadcasting. It is so far measured to be about 100 times faster than some Wi-Fi implementations, reaching speeds of 224 gigabits per second.

Li-Fi is a wireless optical networking technology that uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) for data transmission. Li-Fi is designed to use LED light bulbs similar to those currently in use in many energy-conscious homes and offices. However, Li-Fi bulbs are outfitted with a chip that modulates the light imperceptibly for optical data transmission. Li-Fi data is transmitted by the LED bulbs and received by photoreceptors. Li-Fi's early developmental models were capable of 150 megabits-per-second (Mbps). Some commercial kits enabling that speed have been released. In the lab, with stronger LEDs and different technology, researchers have enabled 10 gigabits-per-second (Gbps), which is faster than 802.11ad.

Li-Fi has the advantage of being useful in electromagnetic sensitive areas such as in aircraft cabins, hospitals and nuclear power plants without causing electromagnetic interference. Both Wi-Fi and Li-Fi transmit data over the electromagnetic spectrum, but whereas Wi-Fi utilizes radio waves, Li-Fi uses visible light. While the US Federal Communications Commission has warned of a potential spectrum crisis because Wi-Fi is close to full capacity, Li-Fi has almost no limitations on capacity. The visible light spectrum is 10,000 times larger than the entire radio frequency spectrum. Researchers have reached data rates of over 10 Gbit/s, which is much faster than typical fast broadband in 2013. Li-Fi is expected to be ten times cheaper than Wi-Fi. Short range, low reliability and high installation costs are the potential downsides.

By using Li-Fi in all the lights in and around a building, the technology could enable greater area of coverage than a single Wi-Fi router. Drawbacks to the technology include the need for a clear line of sight, difficulties with mobility and the requirement that lights stay on for operation.